General Training Principles: The Key to Effective Training

This article serves to provide an overview of the various principles of training that an individual should implement into their exercise regime. By adhering to these, desirable physiological adaptations will be made which contribute towards performance enhancement. Although basic this review will function as a link in subsequent pieces discussing specific methods and  the planning of training.

The principle feature of training involves exposing an athlete to a work stimulus of greater magnitude than usual - often termed as 'overload'. It is important to note that the body's physiological systems will only adapt when subjected to a stress that they are temporarily unable to cope with. Experiencing such workloads resulting in the coupling of catabolic and anabolic processes, whereby the training stress induces a breakdown of bodily energy stores such as glycogen or lipid. This is then followed by the anabolic process of increased deposition of broken down molecules, for example muscle proteins. Thus promoting the net effect of muscle hypertrophy and the ability to cope with increased exercise demands.

The principle of overload can be achieved through the use of the FITT principle:
Frequency - Training more often.
Intensity  - Making training harder e.g. Adding resistance/weight.
Time - Exercising for longer.
Type - Participating in a different activity or method training.

It must also be stressed that overload should be progressive so to maintain performance improvement. However, this must be done slowly and over a prolonged period of time to ensure the body does not experience injury.

When devising a training programme specificity to the individual is essential; training the relevant energy systems and muscle groups to elicit specific adaptations. Previous research has shown that aerobic power in swimming and running do not 'transfer' and so it is advisable that when training for a certain aerobic activity such as rowing or running the overload stimulates the relevant muscles as well as the central cardiovascular system.
Specific local adaptations will lend to an enhancement of both oxygen transport and utilization due to a greater localised blood flow in the trained muscle. As a result of an even and efficient cardiac output distribution, improvements to an individual's aerobic power and performance technique can be seen.

A vital consideration when devising an exercise regime or prescribing exercise is that each individual responds differently to a training stimulus and therefore programmes should be highly individualised to optimise training benefits. In light of this it would be counterproductive for an individual to carry out a generic training programme or for members of the same team to work at the same absolute rate. Instead, programmes should be uniquely manipulated to improve the athletes personal weaknesses and maintain their strengths.

After only one to two weeks detraining rapidly occurs which reduces ones metabolic and exercise capacity. Research has revealed that after 20 days consecutive bed rest a VO₂ max decrease of 25% can be expected. This is coupled with a 14-25% reduction in muscle capillarisation after three weeks of detraining. Highlighting the significance of an active recovery/transition phase following a sporting season for elite athletes and highly trained recreational sports participants.

The key therefore, to effective training is incorporating the principles of progressive overload into an individual's physical training regime. This must be achieved in a highly personalised manner, taking into account the energy systems and major muscle groups utilised. Training accordingly will optimize biological adaptations and thereby  enhance the exercise capacity of the participant.  

Mind over matter: The importance of psychological skills training

Sun Tzu, a Chinese military general, philosopher and author of 'The Art of War' once said, 'Never enter a battle you have not already won in your mind'. This quote is not only relevant in a military sense but also that of sport and daily life challenges. In order  to achieve any goal the first step is to believe that you as an individual have the capabilities to fulfil that task. This article aims to explain the relevance of psychology in task accomplishment and methods which can enhance your psychological potential.

The practice of psychological skills training (PST) consists of highly methodical and consistent  techniques that aim to maintain drive and focus, optimise arousal levels and increase confidence. Maximising such factors of an athlete's psychological composition not only has the effect of enhancing sporting performance but also provides greater enjoyment and self satisfaction.

Every elite and recreational athlete will have suffered some form of mental error during their career, these can be displayed in a variety of forms:

•          Choking at a vital stage in a competitive situation.
•          Depression or anger due to slow injury recovery.
•          Decreased will or motivation to train.
•          Lack of focus during competition.
•          Frustration and anger with one's own performance.

It is likely at some stage of your athletic career you have experienced one or more of these mental incidents or know somebody who has. Finding the optimal 'work zone' is paramount for all athletes and exercisers as this will enhance kinaesthetic feedback  and ultimately increase adherence to a training regime. Although the vast majority of coaches acknowledge that sport is 50% mental the physicality and technicality of the activity frequently overshadows any form of psychological preparations. More often than not this is due to a lack of understanding of psychological skills training, an apparent scarcity of time or a belief  mental skills naturally reside in an individual and so cannot be taught. It is also thought psychological skills training is only useful for elite or 'problem' athletes, however if these skills are effectively acquired and implemented self regulation of feelings and behaviour can successfully be carried out. Thus allowing for the efficient attainment of short- and long-term goals.

Just as aerobic endurance is the foundation of an athlete's physical fitness; commitment, motivation, self confidence and esteem are the necessary psychological foundational skills for athletic success (Hodge, 2007). These must be developed in order for an exerciser to cope with the pressure of sport and maintain significant levels of concentration. Such performance skills will permit athletes to block out irrelevant stimuli such as the crowd and focus solely on the event at hand. In addition to foundation and performance skills, facilitative skills are key for the effective utilization of performance skills. Training motivation, teamwork, team spirit, lifestyle management and communication are all examples of facilitative skills. For example, an appropriate healthy balanced lifestyle and high levels of training motivation will mean a individual is able to reach their peak potential.

Vealy (1988) identified goal setting, self talk, relaxation, mental imagery and mental rehearsal to be the most significant PST methods. When goal setting it is vital that they are specific, realistic and feedback can be obtained to sustain motivation and highlight future goals. A mixture of goals is also critical; process goals focus on the actions necessary to perform well, in the case of a boxer this may be maintaining a tight guard or a runner relaxing their shoulders to ensure energy is not wasted. Performance goals such as achieving a six minute running mile or reaching a BMI of 21.5 should also be included and ultimately lead to an outcome goal e.g. winning a British championship 10km road race.

Self talk acts as an internal distracter, having both motivational and cognitive functions. With regards to motivation, positive self talk enhances confidence, optimises arousal levels, whilst also providing an increase and maintenance of drive (Hardy et al. 1997). On the other hand, instructional cue words can trigger an aspect of a skill or particular desired response such as 'twist your hips', 'keep your eye on the ball' or 'follow through'. It is important these phrases are short, specific and are repeated often to guarantee their use.

Mental imagery can be used parallel with goal setting and positive self talk, this has shown to enhance performance more than if each method where to be conducted alone (Porter 2003). As with self talk imagery can result in cognitive or motivational outcomes, it can effectively train the neuromuscular system when imagining the perfect skill performance or competitive strategy. Motivational functions include arousal and anxiety regulation through imaging oneself winning or obtaining a personal best. Mental rehearsal acts very similarly to imagery and is often practiced prior to performance, although it can be carried out alone to refresh ones memory of a particular technique or situation.

Relaxation is essential in elite level athletes to combat the pressure and stress that competitive situations entail, perhaps the most common form  of physical relaxation is progressive muscular relaxation (PMR). PMR involves methodically tensing particular muscle groups and then releasing them with the overall aim of lowering tension and stress levels. Through this cycle of tensing and relaxing the athlete not only learns what relaxation feels like but they are then able to better identify when they are becoming stressed, this better allows them to regulate their stress levels prior to future performance.

It is important to note that psychological skills training is not only effective for elite athletes, individuals across a range of different backgrounds and professions can practice these skills to enhance any mode of performance. This can range from public speaking, performing arts or simply participating in physical activity recreationally. However, these techniques must be practiced regularly to gain optimal performance effects and ultimately achieve self regulation to enter your individual optimal work zone. 

The Fat Burning Zone: Fact or Myth?

It's that time of year again, for many the festive bulge is protruding over their favourite pair of jeans, New Year gym deals have been snapped up and already several fad diets have been tried and tested.

A common misconception for exercisers aiming to decrease body fat is to jump onto an aerobic gym machine such as a treadmill or cross trainer and begin exercising within the 'Fat Burning Zone' of 50 - 60% VO₂ max that is so frequently advertised. However, could training at such an intensity actually be doing exercise participants more harm than good? This article will discuss key factors to consider when training to reduce body fat and banish the notion of the elusive 'Fat Burning Zone'.

One statement that is true is that as exercise intensity increases we metabolise greater amounts of our carbohydrate (CHO) reserves as oppose to fat. This is due to fat requiring approximately 15% more oxygen in order for its utilization, as we train more intensely this oxygen cannot be taken in, diffused into the blood and transported to the performing  muscles rapidly enough for its effective use. We are able to determine the percentage values of carbohydrate and fat metabolism through our respiratory exchange ratio (RER), this is the ratio between the amount of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and oxygen (O₂) consumed in one breath. When this RER value is low (0.75), optimal fat utilisation is  achieved, as this value increases to 1.0 predominantly more carbohydrate is being used as an exercise fuel.  There is one problem with this, when at rest our RER is at its lowest and so predominantly fat is being burnt, implying our optimal fat burning zone is achieved when sat in front of the TV or asleep. Awesome!

However, when at rest our total calorific expenditure is very low and so in truth we are only burning a very tiny amount of fat. The data below is for two 30 minute exercise periods, one at a low aerobic intensity (50% VO₂ max) and the other at a moderate aerobic intensity (70% VO₂ max).

	50% VO₂ max	70% VO₂ max
RER	0.84	0.88
Fat : CHO	50 : 50	40 : 60
CHO Kcal	73 Kcal	124 Kcal
Fat Kcal	73 Kcal	82 Kcal
Total Kcal	146 Kcal	206 Kcal

The data shows that at a moderate exercise intensity the percentage of fat utilized is lower, but although less fat is metabolised as a percentage, the absolute value is greater as the total calorific expenditure is increased and so consequently more fat is broken down as the exercise fuel. Not only does this moderate intensity of aerobic training allow a greater number of total fat calories to be burnt but it also gains physiological adaptations to optimize the substrates utilization in following training sessions. Capillary and mitochondrial density within the muscles will be elevated, respiratory muscles strengthened and oxidative enzymes increased. All of which optimise aerobic endurance and fat oxidisation during physical activity by improving the transportation and subsequent utilization of oxygen.

Consequently,  in order to reduce body fat it is of greater benefit to achieve a larger total calorific expenditure through exercising at moderate intensities between 70 - 80% VO₂ max. This does not mean to say that training above this level does not gain these mentioned muscular adaptations, however the duration of such an intense workout is frequently too short to gain the optimal level of physiological change.  Not only will this equate to more fat calories being burnt as an absolute value but it also ensures appropriate adaptations are made to optimise fat utilisation in future training sessions.